Evidence-Based Arguments: a skill companion
A small set of reusable sheets that grow one inquiry skill: building an argument from cited evidence, with reasoning that links the evidence to the conclusion, an honest answer to the strongest objection, and a limit stated plainly. Students also judge secondary sources, cite them, and follow the cultural protocols that come with knowledge belonging to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities. Print the scaffolds once and slot them into the science lessons you already teach.
What a skill companion is
Inquiry skills are not a topic of their own. They grow inside the science units a class teaches all year, wherever a conclusion needs arguing: about cells, the body, moving plates, rocks, energy, water and fuels. So this pack is not a full term of lessons. It is three reusable scaffolds, a map of where they fit, and a short stand-alone lesson for teaching the skill on its own first.
Start here: five minutes
- Read the pairing map on the next page: it shows which scaffold fits which science lesson.
- Print the argument builder whenever students write a conclusion, and the source sheet whenever they use someone else’s data.
- Cut out the cards once. They are reused all year, and the blank cards fit any topic.
- Open the free interactive unit on your board when you want a worked example of the skill.
- Run the one-page mini-lesson first if you want to teach the skill before folding it into a topic.
The step up from Year 7
In Year 7 students linked a claim to evidence with reasoning. In Year 8 the evidence is often secondary data, so the argument names its source; it raises the strongest objection itself and answers it (a counterclaim and a rebuttal); and it ends with a limitation. Using other people’s data brings duties: credit the source, quote figures honestly, check the licence, and for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledge, follow the community’s terms and ask when unsure.
Slot the skill into your science lessons
Every Year 8 topic has a conclusion worth arguing from someone else’s data. This map shows a conclusion in each topic, the secondary data or information to cite, the care it needs, and which scaffold to reach for.
| When you teach | A conclusion to argue | Data or information to cite | The care it needs | Scaffold |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cells: the Basic Units of Life (AC9S8U01) | Plant and animal cells share the same basic parts | A published collection of microscope images | Use images only as their licence allows, and credit the collection | Argument builder |
| Cells, Tissues and Organ Systems (AC9S8U02) | Fitter people’s heart rates recover faster after exercise | A class survey alongside a published study’s summary | Data about people: consent, no names, and only what the study shares | Source sheet, then the cards |
| Plate Tectonics (AC9S8U03) | Australia moves about 7 cm a year to the north-north-east | GPS station records from a national survey agency | Cite the agency, the stations and the dates | Argument builder |
| The Rock Cycle (AC9S8U04) | This valley was once under the sea | Fossils recorded in a geological survey report | Fossil sites can be protected, and some places matter to Traditional Owners: record, do not collect | Source sheet |
| Kinetic and Potential Energy (AC9S8U05) | The school uses most electricity on summer afternoons | The school’s electricity bills or meter readings | Ask the school before using its records | Argument builder, then the cards |
| Elements, Compounds and Mixtures (AC9S8U06) | Tap water is a mixture, not a pure substance | The local water authority’s published water quality report | Cite the report and its year; quote the figures as given | Source sheet |
| Physical and Chemical Changes (AC9S8U07) | Burning a fuel is a chemical change that releases energy | Published energy values for common fuels | Cite where the values came from; never adjust them to fit | The mini-lesson, then the argument builder |
| Any science topic | Any conclusion or claim | Data or information gathered by someone else | Credit, honesty, permission and cultural protocols | Argument builder first |
The three moves, and the picture that backs each one
When you want a worked example on the board, open the interactive unit and use the picture that matches the move.
- Keep cited, honest evidence and drop the weak parts: “Build the case from cited data, drop the weak parts”.
- Weigh how to use knowledge that belongs to a community: “How should you use the Traditional Owner records?”.
- Let the conclusion follow new cited evidence: “Watch the conclusion follow the evidence”.
How the scaffolds build the skill
The argument builder works a GPS record into an argument with a claim, cited evidence, reasoning, a counterclaim, a rebuttal and a limitation. The source sheet weighs four sources, writes a citation, and plans how to use a Traditional Owner group’s seasonal calendar on the group’s terms. The cards sort sentences into evidence, reasoning and rebuttal.
An argument that answers back
A strong argument does more than list evidence. It cites where the evidence came from, explains why it supports the claim, raises the best objection and answers it, and admits what it cannot show.
The evidence: a GPS station in central Australia
A receiver fixed to bedrock records its position to within a few millimetres. How far it had moved since the start of 2016, from a national survey agency’s records (figures made up for this pack, close to real measurements):
| Start of year | 2016 | 2017 | 2018 | 2019 | 2020 | 2021 | 2022 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| North (cm) | 0.0 | 6.1 | 11.8 | 18.0 | 24.0 | 29.9 | 36.0 |
| East (cm) | 0.0 | 3.4 | 7.1 | 10.4 | 14.1 | 17.5 | 21.0 |
Build the argument
| Claim what you conclude, in one sentence | |
| Evidence the data, with its source | |
| Reasoning why the evidence shows the claim, using a science idea | |
| Counterclaim the strongest objection someone could raise | |
| Rebuttal your answer to it, with evidence or reasoning | |
| Limitation what the evidence cannot show |
A fact for the rebuttal, if you need one: Australia’s official map coordinates were updated in 2020 because the continent had moved about 1.8 m since the last update in 1994.
Trust, cite and respect your sources
Secondary data was collected by someone else. Before you use it, ask who made it, how they know, whether you can check it, and whether you may use it. Some knowledge comes with conditions set by the people it belongs to.
A. How far would you trust each source?
| Source | Trust | Why, and how you would use it |
|---|---|---|
| GPS position records from a national survey agency, with every station and its method described | ||
| A chart in a social media post, with no source and no dates | ||
| A school textbook from 1985 on how fast plates move | ||
| A Traditional Owner group’s seasonal calendar, shared on its website for education, asking users to credit the group by name and not change it |
B. Cite it
The details: made by the Southern Survey Office, published in 2023, called “GPS station positions, 2016 to 2022”, found on the office’s website, looked at on 3 May 2026. Write the citation: who (year). Title. Where it was found. The date you looked.
C. Knowledge that belongs to others
A Traditional Owner group’s seasonal calendar (made up for this pack) records which flowers bloom when certain fish are running. It is shared on the group’s website for education, with the request: credit the group by name, and do not change the calendar.
Evidence, reasoning, or rebuttal?
Cut out the cards. Lay down the three grey heading cards, then sort the sentences under them. Then pick one evidence card, the reasoning card that goes with it, and a rebuttal, and read them aloud as one argument.
Teacher note: the piles are not the same size. The answer sheet lists which card is which, and why.
Build it, object to it, answer it
Use this stand-alone lesson to teach the skill on its own, before you fold it into a science topic. Pairs build an argument from a GPS station’s record that the continent is moving. Another pair then writes the strongest objection they can, and the first pair has to answer it with evidence or reasoning.
We are learning to
- build an argument from cited secondary data, with reasoning that links it to the claim,
- raise a fair objection to an argument, and answer one,
- credit sources and respect the terms on which knowledge is shared.
Success criteria
- I can write a claim, cited evidence and reasoning that another pair accepts.
- I can answer an objection with evidence, not just by saying it is wrong.
You need
- the argument builder (scaffold 1), one per student, and two sticky notes per pair,
- the cards from scaffold 3, one set per table.
Lesson flow (about 30 minutes)
| 5 min | Cited, or not? Show the board (see the box). Ask: “Why does the old photo of the beach not belong in the argument, even if it looks convincing?” |
| 10 min | Build it Pairs work out how far the station moved each year and write the claim, evidence and reasoning on scaffold 1. Ask: “Your evidence says ‘from a national survey agency’. Why does that matter to a reader?” |
| 10 min | Object and answer Pairs swap sheets and write the strongest objection on a sticky note. Each pair answers the objection it receives, then adds a limitation. Ask: “Is the objection about the data, the reasoning, or the size of the claim? Answer that part.” |
| 5 min | Sort the cards Tables sort the cards under the three heading cards. Ask: “Which reasoning card goes with evidence card H?” |
Running it shorter? Stop after building the argument, and swap for objections in your next science lesson.
Watch for these ideas
- Evidence with no source, or a source with no dates.
- A rebuttal that only says “that is wrong”.
- Treating knowledge shared by a community as free to change or reuse.
Make it easier, make it bigger
- Easier: give the starters “Records from ... show that ...”, “This shows ... because ...” and “Some might say ..., but ...”.
- Bigger: use the movement to work out how far Australia will have moved in a student’s lifetime, and say how sure that estimate is.
Answers and look-fors
The next sheet has the GPS working, a model argument, the source key, the citation, the protocol answers, the card key and a quick three-level guide.
Answers and look-fors
Argument builder
Over 6 years: 6.0 cm north and 3.5 cm east each year. In all, 36.0 north and 21.0 east make a diagonal of √(36.0² + 21.0²) ≈ 41.7 cm, about 6.9 cm a year (Pythagoras, or a scale drawing).
| Claim | The Australian plate, carrying the continent, moves about 7 cm a year to the north-north-east. |
|---|---|
| Evidence | GPS records from a national survey agency show a station in central Australia moved 36.0 cm north and 21.0 cm east from 2016 to 2022, about 6.9 cm a year. |
| Reasoning | The receiver is fixed to bedrock, so its steady movement is the movement of the plate under it. |
| Counterclaim | Nobody feels the ground moving, and the maps do not change. |
| Rebuttal | Seven centimetres a year is far too slow to feel, and the maps did change: the official coordinates were updated in 2020 after the continent moved about 1.8 m since 1994. |
| Limitation | One station shows the movement at one place; stations across the continent would show whether every part moves the same way. |
Source sheet
| Source | Trust | Why |
|---|---|---|
| GPS position records from a national survey agency, with every station and its method described | High | An expert agency, a published method, and other stations to check against; cite the agency and the dates. |
| A chart in a social media post, with no source and no dates | Low | Nobody can check who made it, how, or when; leave it out. |
| A school textbook from 1985 on how fast plates move | Medium | A careful publisher, but old; check it against newer measurements. |
| A Traditional Owner group’s seasonal calendar, shared on its website for education, asking users to credit the group by name and not change it | High, with conditions | Long-held knowledge, shared on the group’s terms: credit the group by name, do not change it, and ask if a use goes beyond education. |
B. Southern Survey Office (2023). GPS station positions, 2016 to 2022. Found on the office’s website. Looked at 3 May 2026. C. May: quote and use the calendar in the class project. Must: credit the group by name and keep the calendar exactly as published. Must not: change it, present it as your own or as general knowledge, or use it beyond education. Ask: the group itself, through its website or the school, or the local Aboriginal land council.
Argument cards
| Card | Sentence | Pile | Why |
|---|---|---|---|
| A | A published earthquake catalogue shows most large earthquakes of the last 50 years happened within 100 km of a plate boundary. | Evidence | Secondary data, with its source named. |
| B | The museum’s rock catalogue lists the sample as basalt. | Evidence | Information from a named source. |
| C | Because the GPS receiver is fixed to bedrock, its movement is the movement of the plate under it. | Reasoning | Links the data to the conclusion. |
| D | Basalt forms when lava cools quickly at the surface, so finding it shows that lava once flowed here. | Reasoning | Uses how the rock forms to explain what it shows. |
| E | The agency tide-gauge record, cited by station and year, shows the sea rose about 9 cm in 30 years. | Evidence | Cited secondary data. |
| F | It might be said the chalk only lost mass because it was wet, but every piece was dried before weighing. | Rebuttal | Answers an objection with a detail of the method. |
| G | Higher seas reach further inland at high tide, so low roads flood more often. | Reasoning | Explains why the rise matters. |
| H | GPS records from a national survey agency show the station moved 36 cm north and 21 cm east from 2016 to 2022. | Evidence | Cited secondary data. |
| I | More knocks between pieces wear away more rock, so the mass lost grows with shaking time. | Reasoning | Uses erosion to explain the trend. |
| J | Some argue one tide gauge could be faulty, but four other stations along the coast show the same rise. | Rebuttal | Answers an objection with more evidence. |
| K | Some say the ground cannot be moving because nobody feels it, but 7 cm a year is far too slow to feel. | Rebuttal | Answers an objection with reasoning. |
| L | Our class data: chalk shaken for 12 minutes lost 6.1 g, against 0.9 g after 2 minutes. | Evidence | First-hand data, named as the class’s own. |
Matching sets: H with C and K (moving plates); E with G and J (sea level); L with I and F (chalk); B with D (basalt).
A quick three-level guide
| Move | Working towards | At standard | Beyond |
|---|---|---|---|
| Build the argument | states a claim with evidence but no source or reasoning | gives a claim, cited evidence and reasoning that uses a science idea | adds a counterclaim, a rebuttal with evidence, and a limitation |
| Judge and cite sources | trusts any source that agrees | weighs who made a source and whether it can be checked, and cites it fully | explains how a source’s age or purpose changes how it should be used |
| Ethics and cultural protocols | uses others’ data or knowledge without credit | credits every source, quotes figures honestly and follows stated terms | knows to ask the knowledge holders when a use goes beyond the terms |
A student at standard argues from cited evidence with reasoning, answers an objection, and credits every source on its terms. The skill grows all year, so keep the scaffolds coming back whenever a conclusion is written.